The Tao Te Ching is a Chinese classic text. Its name comes from the opening words of its two sections: dào "way," and "virtue," Chapter 38, plus "classic, says Wikipedia."
According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the Taoist sage Laozi (or Lao Tzu, "Old Master"), a record-keeper at the Zhou Dynasty court.
The Tao Te Ching is fundamental to the Taoist school of Chinese philosophy . This ancient book is also central in Chinese religion, not only for Taoism but Chinese Buddhism, which when first introduced into China was largely interpreted through the use of Taoist words and concepts.
Many Chinese artists, including poets, painters, calligraphers, and even gardeners have used the Tao Te Ching as a source of inspiration. Its influence has also spread widely outside East Asia, aided by hundreds of translations into Western languages.
Tuesday, January 15, 2008
Saturday, January 12, 2008
China remains a center for world poverty, says the NY Times
In a NY Times story on China's poverty Howard French wrote, on Jan 13, 2008:
When she gets sick, Li Enlan, 78, picks herbs from the woods that grow nearby instead of buying modern medicines. That is not a result of some philosophical choice, though. She has never seen a doctor and, like many residents of this area, lives in a meager barter economy, seldom coming into contact with cash.
Poor families in villages like Zhangyoufang still struggle to pay the school fees for their children.
Shen Kexia and her husband had to leave their village in Henan Province to find jobs in Hangzhou, a southern coastal city.
“We eat somehow, but it’s never enough,” Ms. Li said. “At least we’re not starving.”
In this region of southern Henan Province, in village after village, people are too poor to heat their homes in the winter and many lack basic comforts like running water. Mobile phones, a near ubiquitous symbol of upward mobility throughout much of this country, are seen as an impossible luxury. People here often begin conversations with a phrase that is still not uncommon in today’s China: “We are poor.”
China has moved more people out of poverty than any other country in recent decades, but the persistence of destitution in places like southern Henan Province fits with the findings of a recent World Bank study that suggests that there are still 300 million poor in China — three times as many as the bank previously estimated.
Poverty is most severe in China’s geographic and social margins, whether the mountainous areas or deserts that ring the country, or areas dominated by ethnic minorities, who for cultural and historic reasons have benefited far less than others from the country’s long economic rise.
But it also persists in places like Henan, where population densities are among the greatest in China, and the new wealth of the booming coast beckons, almost mockingly, a mere province away.
“Henan has the largest population of any province, approaching 100 million people, and the land there just cannot support those kinds of numbers,” said Albert Keidel, a senior associate at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and an expert on Chinese poverty. “It is supposed to be a breadbasket, but there has always been major discrimination against grain-based areas in China. The profit you can get from a hectare of land from vegetables, or a fish farm or oils, is so much more.”
Other experts say Henan and other heavily populated parts of the Chinese heartland are often excluded from the financial support that goes to the coastal areas, and what antipoverty measures there are have little effect. Typically, residents of those areas say, money intended for them is appropriated by corrupt local officials, who pocket it or divert it to business investments.
Paradoxically, they say, they are overlooked precisely because of their proximity to the major economic centers of the east, forced to fend for themselves on the theory that they can make do with income sent home by migrant laborers and other forms of trickle-down wealth.
“Previous poverty alleviation policy focused more on western China, places like Gansu, Qinghai or Guizhou, which were poorer,” said Wang Xiaolu, deputy director of the National Economic Research Institute, a Beijing nongovernmental organization. “Besides, the situation in the border regions is more complicated, because if things go wrong there, it becomes more than a poverty problem. That’s why policy leaned toward them.”
Here in Henan’s rural Gushi County, only 73,000 of 1.4 million farmers fall below the official poverty level of $94 a year, which is supposed to be enough to cover basic needs, including maintaining a daily diet of 2,000 calories. “We should bear in mind that this poverty standard is very low,” Mr. Wang said, echoing the view of many Chinese economists.
Many more people in this part of Henan subsist between the official poverty line and the $1 a day standard long used by the World Bank. The World Bank’s estimate of the number of poor people in China was tripled to 300 million from 100 million last month, after a new survey of prices altered the picture of what a dollar can buy. The new standard was set according to what economists call purchasing power parity. By the new calculations, estimates of the overall size of the Chinese economy also shrank by 40 percent.
Peasants here are the first to tell a visitor that whatever the statistics say, they remain mired in deep poverty. Villagers throughout this county said several recent, highly publicized measures by the central government to improve the lot of peasants had produced only a modest effect on their lives. They included an abolition of agricultural taxes for peasants, the cancellation of school tuition for their children and new pension and health care plans that appear on paper to be more generous for the rural poor.
Since most peasants here have only a glancing contact with the cash economy, the tax exemption is largely irrelevant. Even with the abolishment of tuition, many said, they were still squeezed by a proliferation of other school fees. Similarly, others said, participation fees and deductibles placed the pension and rural health insurance plans out of their financial reach.
“We’re deadly poor,” said Zhou Zhiwen, a 55-year-old woman in Yangmiao whose brick house marks her as better off than most people, who still live in earthen structures. “We grow just enough food for ourselves to eat, with no surplus grain. We don’t have to pay the grain tax anymore, but our lives aren’t much better.”
Asked how she managed, Ms. Zhou said she received help occasionally from relatives who had migrated elsewhere for work. “If people lived well at home, who would want to migrate,” she said. “All of our young people are working elsewhere.”
For many villagers, the central government is out of touch with rural realities in places like this, and the local government is filled with venal officials who shower spending intended for the rural poor on provincial towns and cities or simply take the money for themselves.
“Ordinary people don’t get any real benefits from poverty alleviation programs,” said Li Guangyi, 35, a farmer who lives in the village of Zhangyoufang. “How could relief money get into our hands? It goes first toward relieving the local officials, who get rich on the tragedies of the nation.”
David Dollar, a World Bank official in Beijing, played down the importance of the central government in relieving poverty, saying provincial results had much more to do with the success of local officials in creating an attractive investment climate.
Much of the remaining poverty, he said, involved households that lacked migrant laborers or able-bodied workers. “Very often poverty is related to a health shock or an injury, or the lack of an able-bodied person,” Mr. Dollar said. “Traditionally, the Chinese government approach has been helping the village grow, but if there are few able-bodied people, you have to work on safety net issues.”
In Gushi County, however, even families with members who migrated east for work remained stuck in poverty, and the situation of the migrants themselves often remained precarious.
Shen Kexia, 33, who left her village with her husband for work in Hangzhou, a booming southern coastal city, recently returned home for the birth of her second daughter. She and her husband plan to leave their two daughters with Ms. Shen’s elderly parents as soon as the baby is big enough.
“If my in-laws get sick, we won’t be able to leave,” she said. “We’re home to have this baby because we cannot afford to in Hangzhou, but if we have money, we won’t come back.”
When she gets sick, Li Enlan, 78, picks herbs from the woods that grow nearby instead of buying modern medicines. That is not a result of some philosophical choice, though. She has never seen a doctor and, like many residents of this area, lives in a meager barter economy, seldom coming into contact with cash.
Poor families in villages like Zhangyoufang still struggle to pay the school fees for their children.
Shen Kexia and her husband had to leave their village in Henan Province to find jobs in Hangzhou, a southern coastal city.
“We eat somehow, but it’s never enough,” Ms. Li said. “At least we’re not starving.”
In this region of southern Henan Province, in village after village, people are too poor to heat their homes in the winter and many lack basic comforts like running water. Mobile phones, a near ubiquitous symbol of upward mobility throughout much of this country, are seen as an impossible luxury. People here often begin conversations with a phrase that is still not uncommon in today’s China: “We are poor.”
China has moved more people out of poverty than any other country in recent decades, but the persistence of destitution in places like southern Henan Province fits with the findings of a recent World Bank study that suggests that there are still 300 million poor in China — three times as many as the bank previously estimated.
Poverty is most severe in China’s geographic and social margins, whether the mountainous areas or deserts that ring the country, or areas dominated by ethnic minorities, who for cultural and historic reasons have benefited far less than others from the country’s long economic rise.
But it also persists in places like Henan, where population densities are among the greatest in China, and the new wealth of the booming coast beckons, almost mockingly, a mere province away.
“Henan has the largest population of any province, approaching 100 million people, and the land there just cannot support those kinds of numbers,” said Albert Keidel, a senior associate at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and an expert on Chinese poverty. “It is supposed to be a breadbasket, but there has always been major discrimination against grain-based areas in China. The profit you can get from a hectare of land from vegetables, or a fish farm or oils, is so much more.”
Other experts say Henan and other heavily populated parts of the Chinese heartland are often excluded from the financial support that goes to the coastal areas, and what antipoverty measures there are have little effect. Typically, residents of those areas say, money intended for them is appropriated by corrupt local officials, who pocket it or divert it to business investments.
Paradoxically, they say, they are overlooked precisely because of their proximity to the major economic centers of the east, forced to fend for themselves on the theory that they can make do with income sent home by migrant laborers and other forms of trickle-down wealth.
“Previous poverty alleviation policy focused more on western China, places like Gansu, Qinghai or Guizhou, which were poorer,” said Wang Xiaolu, deputy director of the National Economic Research Institute, a Beijing nongovernmental organization. “Besides, the situation in the border regions is more complicated, because if things go wrong there, it becomes more than a poverty problem. That’s why policy leaned toward them.”
Here in Henan’s rural Gushi County, only 73,000 of 1.4 million farmers fall below the official poverty level of $94 a year, which is supposed to be enough to cover basic needs, including maintaining a daily diet of 2,000 calories. “We should bear in mind that this poverty standard is very low,” Mr. Wang said, echoing the view of many Chinese economists.
Many more people in this part of Henan subsist between the official poverty line and the $1 a day standard long used by the World Bank. The World Bank’s estimate of the number of poor people in China was tripled to 300 million from 100 million last month, after a new survey of prices altered the picture of what a dollar can buy. The new standard was set according to what economists call purchasing power parity. By the new calculations, estimates of the overall size of the Chinese economy also shrank by 40 percent.
Peasants here are the first to tell a visitor that whatever the statistics say, they remain mired in deep poverty. Villagers throughout this county said several recent, highly publicized measures by the central government to improve the lot of peasants had produced only a modest effect on their lives. They included an abolition of agricultural taxes for peasants, the cancellation of school tuition for their children and new pension and health care plans that appear on paper to be more generous for the rural poor.
Since most peasants here have only a glancing contact with the cash economy, the tax exemption is largely irrelevant. Even with the abolishment of tuition, many said, they were still squeezed by a proliferation of other school fees. Similarly, others said, participation fees and deductibles placed the pension and rural health insurance plans out of their financial reach.
“We’re deadly poor,” said Zhou Zhiwen, a 55-year-old woman in Yangmiao whose brick house marks her as better off than most people, who still live in earthen structures. “We grow just enough food for ourselves to eat, with no surplus grain. We don’t have to pay the grain tax anymore, but our lives aren’t much better.”
Asked how she managed, Ms. Zhou said she received help occasionally from relatives who had migrated elsewhere for work. “If people lived well at home, who would want to migrate,” she said. “All of our young people are working elsewhere.”
For many villagers, the central government is out of touch with rural realities in places like this, and the local government is filled with venal officials who shower spending intended for the rural poor on provincial towns and cities or simply take the money for themselves.
“Ordinary people don’t get any real benefits from poverty alleviation programs,” said Li Guangyi, 35, a farmer who lives in the village of Zhangyoufang. “How could relief money get into our hands? It goes first toward relieving the local officials, who get rich on the tragedies of the nation.”
David Dollar, a World Bank official in Beijing, played down the importance of the central government in relieving poverty, saying provincial results had much more to do with the success of local officials in creating an attractive investment climate.
Much of the remaining poverty, he said, involved households that lacked migrant laborers or able-bodied workers. “Very often poverty is related to a health shock or an injury, or the lack of an able-bodied person,” Mr. Dollar said. “Traditionally, the Chinese government approach has been helping the village grow, but if there are few able-bodied people, you have to work on safety net issues.”
In Gushi County, however, even families with members who migrated east for work remained stuck in poverty, and the situation of the migrants themselves often remained precarious.
Shen Kexia, 33, who left her village with her husband for work in Hangzhou, a booming southern coastal city, recently returned home for the birth of her second daughter. She and her husband plan to leave their two daughters with Ms. Shen’s elderly parents as soon as the baby is big enough.
“If my in-laws get sick, we won’t be able to leave,” she said. “We’re home to have this baby because we cannot afford to in Hangzhou, but if we have money, we won’t come back.”
Thursday, January 10, 2008
Tai chi chuan in Beijing
*
What is Tai Chi Chuan?
Most people think of the slow sequence of movements known as the hand form when they think of Tai Chi Chuan, says a British site called five winds.com. However, there is much more to it than this: it is a Chinese martial art, and a complete system provides a comprehensive method of self-defence as well as an excellent method for maintaining health.
These pages present the art of Tai Chi Chuan as seen from the perspective of Wudang Tai Chi.
What Does the Name Mean?
The first character is "tai"; the literal meaning of this word is "extreme" or "great". The second character is "chi" whose meaning is best taken to be "pole", as in "an extreme point". Thus, the phrase "tai chi" is translated as "great pole".
Tai Chi Diagram This phrase is a reference to the fundamental polarity of yin and yang, as represented in the well-known symbol shown on the left. Yin and yang represent the basic pair of complementary forces in the universe: yielding and firm, empty and full.
The third character is "chuan"; literally, "fist". Within the context of Chinese martial arts it is used to mean a style of fighting.
The name "Tai Chi Chuan" may, then, best be translated as "the style of fighting based on the principles of yin and yang".
Qi Note that the character for "chi" in "Tai Chi Chuan" is not to be confused with a different word, also written "chi" in the Wade-Giles system (see Romanized Chinese Names below), which is used in the term "chi kung". "Chi" in that context means "breath" or "energy", and its character is shown on the left.
What is Tai Chi Chuan?
Most people think of the slow sequence of movements known as the hand form when they think of Tai Chi Chuan, says a British site called five winds.com. However, there is much more to it than this: it is a Chinese martial art, and a complete system provides a comprehensive method of self-defence as well as an excellent method for maintaining health.
These pages present the art of Tai Chi Chuan as seen from the perspective of Wudang Tai Chi.
What Does the Name Mean?
The first character is "tai"; the literal meaning of this word is "extreme" or "great". The second character is "chi" whose meaning is best taken to be "pole", as in "an extreme point". Thus, the phrase "tai chi" is translated as "great pole".
Tai Chi Diagram This phrase is a reference to the fundamental polarity of yin and yang, as represented in the well-known symbol shown on the left. Yin and yang represent the basic pair of complementary forces in the universe: yielding and firm, empty and full.
The third character is "chuan"; literally, "fist". Within the context of Chinese martial arts it is used to mean a style of fighting.
The name "Tai Chi Chuan" may, then, best be translated as "the style of fighting based on the principles of yin and yang".
Qi Note that the character for "chi" in "Tai Chi Chuan" is not to be confused with a different word, also written "chi" in the Wade-Giles system (see Romanized Chinese Names below), which is used in the term "chi kung". "Chi" in that context means "breath" or "energy", and its character is shown on the left.
Buddhist pagoda / Wacom digital tablet in the classroom
Buddhist pagoda / geography class unit on China / Wacom digital tablet
Originally uploaded by trudeau
- There are some similarities to European design, particularly in the use of what would be called Roman tiles in the Mediterranean.
- The finials at the roof's upturned ends are to keep away bad spirits.
- Which phrase means "baked earth"?
- "celestial"?
- pagoda?
- feng shui?
Taoist Tai Chi: a martial art that has become a program for health and longevity
Tai chi chuan is an internal Chinese martial art. Tai chi is typically practised for a variety of reasons: its soft martial techniques, demonstration competitions, health and longevity. Consequently, there exist a multitude of training forms, both traditional and modern, which correspond to those aims. Some of Tai chi chuan's training forms are well known to Westerners as the slow motion routines that groups of people practice together every morning in parks around the world, particularly in China.
The Mandarin term "tai chi chuan" literally translates as "supreme ultimate fist" or "boundless fist," but may better translate to "great extremes boxing," with an emphasis on finding balance between two great extremes. The concept of the "supreme ultimate" is the symbol of the Taijitu meant to show the principles of Yin and Yang duality of Taoist philosophy. Thus, tai chi theory and practice evolved in agreement with many of the principles of Chinese philosophy and Taoism in particular. Tai chi training first and foremost involves learning solo routines, known as forms (套路 taolu). While the image of tai chi chuan in popular culture is typified by exceedingly slow movement, many tai chi styles (including the three most popular, Yang, Wu and Chen) have secondary forms of a faster pace.
In Western countries Tai Chi Chuan is often known simply as "Tai Chi" (with a corresponding emphasis on health practise and a de-emphasis on martial art training).
The Mandarin term "tai chi chuan" literally translates as "supreme ultimate fist" or "boundless fist," but may better translate to "great extremes boxing," with an emphasis on finding balance between two great extremes. The concept of the "supreme ultimate" is the symbol of the Taijitu meant to show the principles of Yin and Yang duality of Taoist philosophy. Thus, tai chi theory and practice evolved in agreement with many of the principles of Chinese philosophy and Taoism in particular. Tai chi training first and foremost involves learning solo routines, known as forms (套路 taolu). While the image of tai chi chuan in popular culture is typified by exceedingly slow movement, many tai chi styles (including the three most popular, Yang, Wu and Chen) have secondary forms of a faster pace.
In Western countries Tai Chi Chuan is often known simply as "Tai Chi" (with a corresponding emphasis on health practise and a de-emphasis on martial art training).
QiGong (Chi-Kong): ancient Chinese disease prevention and health builder
Qigong or chi kung is an aspect of traditional Chinese medicine, some forms of which involve the coordination of different breathing patterns with various physical postures and motions of the body, says Wikipdia.org.
It is mostly taught for health maintenance purposes, but there are also some who teach it as a therapeutic intervention or practice it as a medical profession.
Various forms of traditional qigong are also widely taught in conjunction with Chinese martial arts, and are especially prevalent in the advanced training of what are known as the Neijia, or internal martial arts where the object is the full mobilization and proper coordination and direction of the energies of the body as they are applied to facilitate all physical actions.
Qigong relies on the traditional Chinese belief that the body has something that might be described as an "energy field" generated and maintained by the natural respiration of the body, known as qi. Qi means breath or gas in Chinese, and, by extension, the energy produced by breathing that keeps us alive; gong means work applied to a discipline or the resultant level of technique. Qigong is then "breath work" or the art of managing one's breathing in order to achieve and maintain good health, and (especially in the martial arts) to enhance the energy mobilization and stamina of the body in coordination with the physical process of respiration.
Attitudes toward the scientific basis (or lack of it) for qigong vary markedly. Most Western medical practitioners and many practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine, as well as the Chinese government, view qigong as a set of breathing and movement exercises, with possible benefits to health through stress reduction and exercise. Others see qigong in more metaphysical terms, claiming that breathing and movement exercises can help one tap the fundamental energies of the universe.
It is mostly taught for health maintenance purposes, but there are also some who teach it as a therapeutic intervention or practice it as a medical profession.
Various forms of traditional qigong are also widely taught in conjunction with Chinese martial arts, and are especially prevalent in the advanced training of what are known as the Neijia, or internal martial arts where the object is the full mobilization and proper coordination and direction of the energies of the body as they are applied to facilitate all physical actions.
Qigong relies on the traditional Chinese belief that the body has something that might be described as an "energy field" generated and maintained by the natural respiration of the body, known as qi. Qi means breath or gas in Chinese, and, by extension, the energy produced by breathing that keeps us alive; gong means work applied to a discipline or the resultant level of technique. Qigong is then "breath work" or the art of managing one's breathing in order to achieve and maintain good health, and (especially in the martial arts) to enhance the energy mobilization and stamina of the body in coordination with the physical process of respiration.
Attitudes toward the scientific basis (or lack of it) for qigong vary markedly. Most Western medical practitioners and many practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine, as well as the Chinese government, view qigong as a set of breathing and movement exercises, with possible benefits to health through stress reduction and exercise. Others see qigong in more metaphysical terms, claiming that breathing and movement exercises can help one tap the fundamental energies of the universe.
Wednesday, January 09, 2008
Chinese cuisine and a healthy life . . .
Notes from The World Atlas of Food were selected by your teacher to emphasize what I see is a lot of healthy directions. Is Chinese cooking the original Healthy Diet?
- use of stir fry and steaming and slow cooking in crockery.
- use of soy bean paste, tofu, vegetables such as water chestnuts.
There's also an emphasis on economy:
- dicing and shredding food can save cooking oil and cooking fuel.
- chai a good drink.
- use of the wok may save time.
More health-consciousness:
- national ritual of starting the day with the form of martial arts called T'ai ch'i.
1) Open notes quiz Thursday.
2) Hand-sketched map quiz (12 items) next Tues.
- use of stir fry and steaming and slow cooking in crockery.
- use of soy bean paste, tofu, vegetables such as water chestnuts.
There's also an emphasis on economy:
- dicing and shredding food can save cooking oil and cooking fuel.
- chai a good drink.
- use of the wok may save time.
More health-consciousness:
- national ritual of starting the day with the form of martial arts called T'ai ch'i.
1) Open notes quiz Thursday.
2) Hand-sketched map quiz (12 items) next Tues.
Monday, January 07, 2008
Sketch on new Wacom Bamboo tablet: China map 2.jpg
When your parents were in school, China was a starving and struggling nation. It was not on America's radar. Today it is one of the world's most important nations.
The Chinese economy is rocket-like. In fact, last month the Chinese sent a lunar probe into space.
Our unit will include some history -
* Qin Shi Huang Ti, the first emperor
* the Great Wall
* the Buried Army at Shi'an
* Mao Zedong, the founder of Chinese communism
It will also focus on language via lessons in Chinese characters and pronouciation by Madeline Trudeau Kawanaka.
Chinese cooking? The wok and unusual ingredients such as soy and ginger.
China, the People's Republic of China (PROC), vs Taiwan, the Republic of China (ROC): communist vs democratic, free market China.
The One family, One child policy.
Great cities:
- Beijing and the Imperial City
- Shanghai, the most populous city in China (ranked 10th in the world).
- Honk Kong, the premier financial center of Asia
Thursday:
Open notes, multiple-choice quiz on the map and the movie, Not One Less.
The Chinese economy is rocket-like. In fact, last month the Chinese sent a lunar probe into space.
Our unit will include some history -
* Qin Shi Huang Ti, the first emperor
* the Great Wall
* the Buried Army at Shi'an
* Mao Zedong, the founder of Chinese communism
It will also focus on language via lessons in Chinese characters and pronouciation by Madeline Trudeau Kawanaka.
Chinese cooking? The wok and unusual ingredients such as soy and ginger.
China, the People's Republic of China (PROC), vs Taiwan, the Republic of China (ROC): communist vs democratic, free market China.
The One family, One child policy.
Great cities:
- Beijing and the Imperial City
- Shanghai, the most populous city in China (ranked 10th in the world).
- Honk Kong, the premier financial center of Asia
Thursday:
Open notes, multiple-choice quiz on the map and the movie, Not One Less.
Not One Less, an award-winning movie about China
Teacher Gao of the Shuiquan Primary School has to be away from school for a month to tend to his ailing mother. The mayor of the village finds a substitute teacher, Wei Minzhi, to take over the class for Teacher Gao. Seeing that Wei Minzhi is only 13 years old, Teacher Gao protests to the mayor that such a young girl will not be able to teach students who are her own age or slightly younger. The mayor replies that finding anyone in that rural area who is willing to take the job is no mean feat, and that at the least she can keep an eye on things while Teacher Gao is away.
Teacher Gao’s class had 40 students at the beginning of the school year, but increasing attrition has brought that number down to 28. Teacher Gao admonishes Wei Minzhi that she must not allow even one more student to drop out while he’s gone and promises her an extra 10 yuan in pay if she succeeds.
Wei faithfully calls the roster every day and then sets the students to copying lessons from the blackboard. She is not overly concerned about whether the students actually learn anything as long as they stay put; she ends up spending most of each day sitting guard outside the classroom door.
Ten-year-old student Zhang Huike is a bright but naughty boy who often tries Wei’s patience as she works to keep a semblance of order amongst the children. His family is in serious financial debt, however, and when he fails to appear in class one morning, Wei discovers he has been forced to go to the city to find work.
With Teacher Gao’s words still firmly in her mind but only a vague idea of where the boy might be, Wei Minzhi sets off on her own to the big city to try to find Zhang Huike and bring him back.
Saturday, January 05, 2008
Wednesday, January 02, 2008
Architecture of China
The Celstial Kingdom produced amazing technology - rockets, for instance, and paper, printing and the compass - and did it with style.
Their temple and palace architecture was astonishing to us. We shall make paper models of some of these buildings so as to analyze their
place in world history.
Our comparison will be with the European castles and forts and palaces of the Mughals of India.
Their temple and palace architecture was astonishing to us. We shall make paper models of some of these buildings so as to analyze their
place in world history.
Our comparison will be with the European castles and forts and palaces of the Mughals of India.
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